Libertarianism

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Libertarianism has been variously defined by sources. In the strictest sense, it is the political philosophy that holds individual liberty as the basic moral principle of society. In the broadest sense, it is any political philosophy which approximates this view. Libertarianism includes diverse beliefs, all advocating strict limits to government activity and sharing the goal of maximizing individual liberty and political freedom.[1]

Philosopher Roderick T. Long defines libertarianism as "any political position that advocates a radical redistribution of power from the coercive state to voluntary associations of free individuals", whether "voluntary association" takes the form of the free market or of communal co-operatives.[2] According to the U.S. Libertarian Party, libertarianism is the advocacy of a government that is funded voluntarily and limited to protecting individuals from coercion and violence.[3]

Contents

Overview

Libertarian schools of thought differ over the degree to which the state should be reduced. Anarchists advocate complete elimination of the state. Minarchists advocate a state which is limited to protecting its citizens from aggression, theft, breach of contract, and fraud. Some libertarians go further, such as by supporting minimal public assistance for the poor.[4] Additionally, some schools are supportive of private property rights in the ownership of unappropriated land and natural resources while others reject such private ownership and often support common ownership instead.[5][6][7] Another distinction can be made among libertarians who support private ownership and those that support common ownership of the means of production; the former generally supporting a capitalist economy, the latter a libertarian socialist economic system. In some parts of the world, the term "libertarianism" is synonymous with Left anarchism.[8]

Libertarians can broadly be characterized as holding four ethical views: consequentialism, deontological theories, contractarianism, and class-struggle normative beliefs. The main divide is between consequentialist libertarianism—which is support for a large degree of "liberty" because it leads to favorable consequences, such as prosperity or efficiency—and deontological libertarianism (also known as "rights-theorist libertarianism," "natural rights libertarianism," or "libertarian moralism"), which is a philosophy based on belief in moral self-ownership and opposition to "initiation of force" and fraud. Others combine a hybrid of consequentialist and deontologist thinking.[9] Another view, contractarian libertarianism, holds that any legitimate authority of government derives not from the consent of the governed, but from contract or mutual agreement,[10][11][12] though this can be seen as reducible to consequentialism or deontologism depending on what grounds contracts are justified. Some Libertarian Socialists with backgrounds influenced by Marxism reject deontological and consequential approaches and use normative class-struggle methodologies rooted in Hegelian thought to justify direct action in pursuit of liberty.[13]

In the United States, the term libertarian is commonly associated with those who have conservative positions on economic issues and left-wing positions on social issues.[14]

Etymology

The use of the word "libertarian" to describe a set of political positions can be tracked to the French cognate, libertaire, which was coined in 1857 by French anarchist Joseph Déjacque who used the term to distinguish his libertarian communist approach from the mutualism advocated by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon.[15] Hence libertarian has been used by some as a synonym for left-wing anarchism since the 1890s.[16] Libertarian socialists, such as Noam Chomsky and Colin Ward, assert that many still consider the term libertarianism a synonym of anarchism in countries other than the US.[8]

History

Origins

During the 18th century Age of Enlightenment, "liberal" ideas flourished in Europe and North America. Libertarians of various schools were influenced by classical liberal ideas.[17] The term libertarian in a metaphysical or philosophical sense was first used by late-Enlightenment free-thinkers to refer to those who believed in free will, as opposed to determinism.[18] The first recorded use was in 1789 by William Belsham in a discussion of free will and in opposition to "necessitarian" (or determinist) views.[19][20]

The first anarchist journal to use the term “libertarian” was La Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement Social and it was published in New York City between 1858 and 1861 by French anarcho-communist Joseph Déjacque. "The next recorded use of the term was in Europe, when “libertarian communism” was used at a French regional anarchist Congress at Le Havre (16-22 November, 1880). January the following year saw a French manifesto issued on “Libertarian or Anarchist Communism.” Finally, 1895 saw leading anarchists Sébastien Faure and Louise Michel publish La Libertaire in France." The word stems from the French word libertaire, and was used to evade the French ban on anarchist publications. In this tradition, the term "libertarianism" in "libertarian socialism" is generally used as a synonym for anarchism, which some say is the original meaning of the term; hence "libertarian socialism" is equivalent to "socialist anarchism" to these scholars.[21] In the context of the European socialist movement, libertarian has conventionally been used to describe those who opposed state socialism, such as Mikhail Bakunin. However, the association of socialism with libertarianism predates that of capitalism, and many anti-authoritarians still decry what they see as a mistaken association of capitalism with libertarianism in the United States.[22]

Twentieth century

During the early 20th century modern liberalism in the United States began to take a more state-oriented approach to economic regulation. While conservatism in Europe continued to mean conserving hierarchical class structures through state control of society and the economy, some conservatives in the United States began to refer to conserving traditions of liberty. This was especially true of the Old Right, who opposed the New Deal and U.S. military interventions in World War I and World War II. Those who held to the earlier liberal views began to call themselves market liberals, classic liberals or libertarians to distinguish themselves. The Austrian School of economics, influenced by Frédéric Bastiat and later by Ludwig von Mises, also had an impact on what is now right-libertarianism.

In the 1950s many with "Old Right" or classical liberal beliefs in the United States began to describe themselves as "libertarian." Arizona United States Senator Barry Goldwater's right-libertarian leaning challenge to authority also influenced the US libertarian movement.[23]

During the 1960s, the Vietnam War divided right-libertarians, anarchist libertarians, and conservatives. Right-libertarians and left-libertarians opposed to the war, joined the draft resistance and peace movements and began founding their own publications, like Murray Rothbard's The Libertarian Forum[24] and organizations like the Radical Libertarian Alliance[25] and the Society for Individual Liberty.[26]

In 1971, a small group of Americans led by David Nolan formed the U.S. Libertarian Party. Attracting former Democrats, Republicans and independents, the party has run a presidential candidate every election year since 1972. Over the years, dozens of capitalism-supporting libertarian political parties have been formed worldwide. Educational organizations like the Center for Libertarian Studies and the Cato Institute were formed in the 1970s, and others have been created since then.

Right-libertarianism gained a significant measure of recognition in academia with the publication of Harvard University professor Robert Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia in 1974. The book won a National Book Award in 1975.[27][28] Nozick disavowed some of his theory late in life.[29] Academics as well as proponents of the free market perspectives note that free-market capitalist libertarianism has been successfully propagated beyond the United States since the 1970s via think tanks and political parties.[30]

Libertarian philosophies

See also Category:Libertarianism by form.

Libertarian philosophies are divided among three main distinctions: whether the morality of actions are determined consequentially or deontologically, whether or not private property is legitimate, and whether or not the state is legitimate.

Consequentialist / deontological distinction

Consequentialist libertarians defend liberty on the grounds its consequences are better than those of the lack of it.[31] Deontological libertarians hold that libertarians must defend liberty on principle because aggression is amoral, regardless of consequences.[32]

Proprietarian / non-proprietarian distinction

Central to libertarianism is the concept of liberty. One distinction among libertarian philosophies has its origin in two different definitions of liberty.

Non-proprietarian libertarian philosophies, like libertarian socialism, hold that liberty is the absence of any form authority and assert that a society based on freedom and equality can be achieved through abolishing authoritarian institutions that control certain means of production and subordinate the majority to an owning class or political and economic elite.[33] Implicitly, it rejects any authority of private property and thus holds that it is not legitimate for someone to claim private ownership of any resources to the detriment of others.[34][35][36][37] Libertarian socialism is a group of political philosophies that promote a non-hierarchical, non-bureaucratic, stateless society without private property in the means of production. The two terms are often used interchangeably.[38][39] The term libertarian socialism is also used to differentiate this philosophy from state socialism[40][41] or as a synonym for left anarchism.[38][39] Libertarian socialists generally place their hopes in decentralized means of direct democracy such as libertarian municipalism, citizens' assemblies, trade unions and workers' councils.[42]

Proprietarian libertarian philosophies define liberty as non-aggression, or the state in which no person or group aggresses against any other person or group, where aggression is defined as the violation of private property.[43] This philosophy, implicitly, recognizes as the sole source of legitimate authority private property. Proprietarian libertarians hold that an order of private property is the only one that is both ethical and leads to the best possible outcomes.[44] They generally support the free-market, and are not opposed to any concentration of power (monopolies) provided it is brought about through non-coercive means.[45] They argue that the state is aggressive by its nature and that it hampers the natural adapting price system through which the economy regulates itself. Rothbard also argued that a state could not sustain itself without taxation.[46]

Statism / anarchism distinction

Libertarians differ on the degree up to which the state can be reduced. Two groups can be distinguished, statists, who support states, and anarchists, who favor stateless societies and view the state as being undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful [47][48] while others have defined anarchism as opposing authority in the conduct of human relations.[49]

Supporters of government argue that having defense and courts controlled by the market is an inherent miscarriage of justice because it turns justice into a commodity, thereby conflating justice with economic power. Libertarian anarchists argue that having defence and courts controlled by the state is both immoral and an inefficient means of achieving both justice and security. They argue that a state is coercive by its nature and therefore violates the non-aggression principle.[50][51] Another argument is that private defense and protection firms would tend to represent the interests of those who pay them enough.[52] Murray Rothbard agrees with this argument, however add that it is self-defeating to fight potential concentration of power by concentrating power in the hands of the state.[53] Furthermore these anarchists claim that a market system is the best Checks and balances system known to man.[54]

Anarchists are divided according to their proprietarian or non-proprietarian definition of liberty. The proprietarian libertarian philosophy of anarchism is called Anarcho-capitalism.[55] Non-proprietarian libertarian philosophies of anarchism include anarchist collectivism, anarchist communism, social anarchism and anarcho-syndicalism. Anti-property anarchists hold that liberty is incompatible with state action based on a class struggle analysis of the state.[56]

Anarcho-capitalists generally argue government is aggressive by its nature because governments use force against those who have not stolen private property, vandalized private property, assaulted anyone, or committed fraud.[57] Many also argue that monopolies tend to be corrupt and inefficient.[58] Murray Rothbard argued that all government services, including defense, are inefficient because they lack a market-based pricing mechanism regulated by the voluntary decisions of consumers purchasing services that fulfill their highest-priority needs and by investors seeking the most profitable enterprises to invest in.[59] Pro-property anarchists also argue that private defense and court agencies would have to have a good reputation in order to stay in business.[60] Murray Rothbard agrees with this argument. However, he argued that one cannot justify a concentration of power out of a fear of a concentration of power, and that a market system is the best checks and balances system.[61] Furthermore, Linda & Morris Tannehill argue that no coercive monopoly of force can arise on a truly free market[62] and that a government's citizenry can’t desert them in favor of a competent protection and defense agency.

Philosophers influential to libertarianism

See also Category:Libertarian theorists

Libertarian groups and movements

Since the 1950s, many American libertarian organizations have adopted a free market, capitalist stance; these include the Center for Libertarian Studies, the Cato Institute, the Foundation for Economic Education (FEE), the International Society for Individual Liberty (ISIL) and the Ludwig von Mises Institute. Libertarians are prominent in the Tea Party. The activist Free State Project, formed in 2001, works to bring 20,000 libertarians to New Hampshire to influence state policy. Less successful similar projects include the Free West Alliance and Free State Wyoming.

Numerous socialist and anarchist libertarian groups existed during the twentieth century, like Libertarian League in America, Libertarian Youth in Spain or the Libertarian Socialist Organisation in Australia.[67][68][69] Contemporary examples include the CIB Unicobas union in Italy, Alternative libertaire in France, The Emancipatory Left caucus in The Left party in Germany, Libertarian Communist Organization in France and Argentine Libertarian Federation in Argentine. Scholars have also typified the European "new social movements" as that "'family' of left-libertarian movements in...France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland."[70]

Libertarian political parties

See: Category:Libertarian parties

A number of countries have libertarian parties that run candidates for political office. In the United States, the Libertarian Party of the United States was formed in 1972. The Libertarian Party is the third largest[71][72] American political party, with over 225,000 registered voters in the 35 states that allow registration as a libertarian[73] and has hundreds of party candidates elected or appointed to public office, and has run thousands for office.[74] In the Netherlands there is the Libertarische Partij. The Turkish Freedom and Solidarity Party also has used the term "libertarian socialist" to describe its politics.

Criticisms

See main article: Criticism of libertarianism

Criticisms of libertarianism include deontological criticisms and consequentialist criticisms.

See also

Anarchism portal
Liberalism portal
Libertarianism portal
Socialism portal

References

  1. ^ Vallentyne, Peter. "Libertarianism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/libertarianism/. Retrieved November 20, 2011. 
  2. ^ Roderick T. Long (1998). "Towards a Libertarian Theory of Class" (PDF). Social Philosophy and Policy 15 (2): 303–349: at p. 304. doi:10.1017/S0265052500002028. http://www.praxeology.net/libclass-theory-part-1.pdf. 
  3. ^ Watts, Duncan (2002). Understanding American government and politics: a guide for A2 politics students. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. p. 246. 
  4. ^ Hamowy, Ronald (editor) (2008). "Sociology and Libertarianism". The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications. pp. 480-482. ISBN 978-1412965804. 
  5. ^ Vallentyne, Peter (September 5, 2002). "Libertarianism". In Edward N. Zalta. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University. http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2009/entries/libertarianism/. Retrieved March 5, 2010. "Both endorse full self-ownership, but they differ with respect to the powers agents have to appropriate unappropriated natural resources (land, air, water, etc.). Right-libertarianism holds that typically such resources may be appropriated by the first person who discovers them, mixes her labor with them, or merely claims them—without the consent of others, and with little or no payment to them. Left-libertarianism, by contrast, holds that unappropriated natural resources belong to everyone in some egalitarian manner. It can, for example, require those who claim rights over natural resources to make a payment to others for the value of those rights. This can provide the basis for a kind of egalitarian redistribution" 
  6. ^ Otero, Carlos Peregrin (2003). "Introduction to Chomsky's Social Theory". In Carlos Peregrin Otero. Radical priorities. Noam Chomsky (book author) (3rd ed.). Oakland, California: AK Press. p. 26. ISBN 1-902593-69-3. ; Chomsky, Noam (2003). Carlos Peregrin Otero. ed. Radical priorities (3rd ed.). Oakland, California: AK Press. pp. 227–228. ISBN 1-902593-69-3. 
  7. ^ Vallentyne, Peter (September 5, 2002). "Libertarianism". In Edward N. Zalta. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University. http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2009/entries/libertarianism/. Retrieved March 5, 2010. "Libertarianism is committed to full self-ownership. A distinction can be made, however, between right-libertarianism and left-libertarianism, depending on the stance taken on how natural resources can be owned" 
  8. ^ a b
    • Chomsky, Noam (February 23, 2002). "The Week Online Interviews Chomsky". Z Magazine. Z Communications. http://www.zmag.org/zspace/commentaries/1137. Retrieved 21 November 2011. "The term libertarian as used in the US means something quite different from what it meant historically and still means in the rest of the world. Historically, the libertarian movement has been the anti-statist wing of the socialist movement. Socialist anarchism was libertarian socialism. In the US, which is a society much more dominated by business, the term has a different meaning. It means eliminating or reducing state controls, mainly controls over private tyrannies. Libertarians in the US don't say let's get rid of corporations. It is a sort of ultra-rightism." 
    • Colin Ward (2004), Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 62. "For a century, anarchists have used the word 'libertarian' as a synonym for 'anarchist', both as a noun and an adjective. The celebrated anarchist journal Le Libertaire was founded in 1896. However, much more recently the word has been appropriated by various American free-market philosophers..."
    • Fernandez, Frank (2001), Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement, Charles Bufe translator, Tucson, Arizona: See Sharp Press, p. 9. "Thus, in the United States, the once exceedingly useful term "libertarian" has been hijacked by egotists who are in fact enemies of liberty in the full sense of the word."
  9. ^ Wolff, Jonathan (2006). "Libertarianism, Utility, and Economic Competition" (PDF). Virginia Law Review 92: 1605. http://www.virginialawreview.org/content/pdfs/92/1605.pdf. 
  10. ^ [unknown] (2007-04-04). "Contractarianism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford, California. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/contractarianism/#3. 
  11. ^ Anthony de Jasay (1996). "Hayek: Some Missing Pieces" (PDF). The Review of Austrian Economics 9 (1): 107–18. ISSN 0889-3047. http://mises.org/journals/rae/pdf/RAE9_1_5.pdf. 
  12. ^ Hardy Bouillon, Harmut Kliemt (2007). "Foreword". In Hardy Bouillon, Hartmut Kliemt. Ordered Anarchy: Jasay and his surroundings. Ashgate Publishing. p. xiii. ISBN 0-7546-6113-X. http://books.google.com/books?id=j0609gRca84C. 
  13. ^ B.Franks (2003). "Direct action ethic" (PDF). Anarchist Studies 11 (1): 13–41: 24–25. http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/3036/01/Direct_action_ethic.pdf. 
  14. ^ Moseley, Daniel (June 25, 2011). "What is Libertarianism?". Basic Income Studies 6 (2): 2. http://ssrn.com/abstract=1872578. Retrieved 15 November 2011. 
  15. ^
  16. ^ Nettlau, Max (1996) (in English, translated). A Short History of Anarchism. London: Freedom Press. p. 162. ISBN 9780900384899. OCLC 37529250. 
  17. ^ Carlos Peregrin Otero, editor, Noam Chomsky: critical assessments, Volumes 2-3, Taylor & Francis US, 1994,p 617, ISBN 041510694X, 9780415106948. Author? Chapter?
  18. ^ David Boaz (1998). Libertarianism A Primer. London, United Kingdom: The Free Press. pp. 22–25. ISBN 0-684-84768-X. http://books.google.com/?id=ALmCSGDYP5gC&pg=PA1&dq=the+coming+libertarian+age+boaz#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
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  20. ^ William Belsham (1789). Essays. C. Dilly. p. 11. http://books.google.com/?id=Z6Y0AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA11&dq=William+Belsham+libertarian. Original from the University of Michigan, digitized May 21, 2007 
  21. ^ Noam Chomsky, Carlos Peregrín Otero. Language and Politics. AK Press, Oakland, California, 2004, p. 739.
  22. ^ Bookchin, Murray (1986). The Modern Crises. Philadelphia: New Society Publishers. pp. 154-155. ISBN 086571083X. 
  23. ^ Henry J. Silverman, ed (1970). American radical thought: the libertarian tradition. Lexington, Mass.: Heath and Company. p. 279.  LCC JA84.U5 S55
  24. ^ Ronald Lora, William Henry Longton, (1999) Conservative press in 20th-century America, p. 367-374, Westport CT: Greenwood Publishing Group
  25. ^ Marc Jason Gilbert, The Vietnam War on campus: other voices, more distant drums, p. 35, 2001, Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN0275969096,
  26. ^ Rebecca E. Klatch, A Generation Divided: The New Left, the New Right, and the 1960s, University of California Press, 1999 ISBN , 215–237.
  27. ^ National Book Award: 1975 - Philosophy and Religion
  28. ^ David Lewis Schaefer, Robert Nozick and the Coast of Utopia, The New York Sun, April 30, 2008.
  29. ^ Misunderstanding Nozick, Again
  30. ^ Steven Teles and Daniel A. Kenney, chapter "Spreading the Word: The diffusion of American Conservativsm in Europe and beyond," (p. 136-169) in Growing apart?: America and Europe in the twenty-first century by ed. Sven Steinmo, Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN , The chapter discusses how libertarian ideas have been more successful at spreading worldwide than social conservative ideas.
  31. ^ Huebert, Jacob H. (2010). Libertarianism Today. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Santa Barbara, Calif.. pp. 254. ISBN 9780313377549. OCLC 521745105.  LCC JC585 .H855 2010
  32. ^ Rothbard, Murray N. (1989). For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto. New York: Collier Books. pp. 338. ISBN 0020746903. http://mises.org/rothbard/newlibertywhole.asp.  LCC JC599.U5 R66 1978
  33. ^ Mendes, Manuel da Silva (2011) (in Portuguese). Socialismo libertario ou Anarchismo. Historia e doutrina. Adegi Graphics LLC. ASIN B004IKWRH2. 
  34. ^ Vallentyne, Peter (September 5, 2002). "Libertarianism". In Edward N. Zalta. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University. http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2009/entries/libertarianism/. Retrieved March 5, 2010. 
  35. ^ Will Kymlicka (1995). "libertarianism, left-". In Ted Honderich. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-866132-0. 
  36. ^ Peter Vallentyne, Hillel Steiner, ed (2000). Left-libertarianism and its critics: the contemporary debate. New York: Palgrave (St. Martin's Press). pp. 393. ISBN 0-312-23699-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=p3BgCFNnHDAC&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
  37. ^ Eric Mack and Gerald F Gauss (2004). "Classical Liberalism and Libertarianism: The Liberty Tradition". In Gerald F. Gaus, Chandran Kukathas. Handbook of Political Theory. Sage Publications Inc.. pp. 115–131, found at 128. ISBN 9780761967873. http://books.google.com/?id=dXjXKlb79cgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=handbook+of+political+theory&cd=1#v=snippet&q=libertarian%20left%20&f=false. 
  38. ^ a b Ostergaard, Geoffrey. "Anarchism". ??Editor?? A Dictionary of Marxist Thought. Blackwell Publishing, 1991. p. 21.
  39. ^ a b Chomsky, Noam and Carlos Peregrín Otero. Language and Politics. AK Press, 2004, p. 739
  40. ^ Paul Zarembka. Transitions in Latin America and in Poland and Syria. Emerald Group Publishing, 2007. p. 25
  41. ^ Guerin, Daniel, (2011) [1970] Anarchism: from theory to practice [originally published as French: Anarchisme, de la doctrine à l'action] reprinted online: libcom.org [first published in English: New York: Monthly Review Press], §1 sub-§"A Matter of Words." "At the end of the century in France, Sebastien Faure took up a word originated in 1858 by one Joseph Dejacque to make it the title of a journal, Le Libertaire. Today the terms "anarchist" and "libertarian" have become interchangeable.… Some contemporary anarchists have tried to clear up the misunderstanding by adopting a more explicit term: they align themselves with libertarian socialism or communism."
  42. ^ Rocker, Rudolf (2004). Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice. Oakland, California: AK Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-902593-92-0. 
  43. ^ For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto, Murray N. Rothbard
  44. ^ The Ethics of Liberty, Murray N. Rothbard
  45. ^ Human Action, Ludwig von Mises
  46. ^ Rothbard, Murray N. (1993) (pdf). Man, Economy and State. Auburn, Alabama: Ludwig Von Mises Institute. pp. 987. ISBN 978-0945466321. http://mises.org/books/mespm.pdf. 
  47. ^ Malatesta, Errico. "Towards Anarchism". MAN! (Los Angeles: International Group of San Francisco). OCLC 3930443. http://www.marxists.org/archive/malatesta/1930s/xx/toanarchy.htm. "Anarchism". The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2005. p. 14. "Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable."  The following sources cite anarchism as a political philosophy: Mclaughlin, Paul (2007). Anarchism and Authority. Aldershot: Ashgate. p. 59. ISBN 0-7546-6196-2.  Johnston, R. (2000). The Dictionary of Human Geography. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers. p. 24. ISBN 0-631-20561-6. 
  48. ^ Slevin, Carl. "Anarchism." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press, 2003.
  49. ^ Anarchist historian George Woodcock report of Mikhail Bakunin's anti-authoritarianism and shows opposition to both state and non-state forms of authority as follows: "All anarchists deny authority; many of them fight against it." (pg. 9)...Bakunin did not convert the League's central committee to his full program, but he did persuade them to accept a remarkably radical recommendation to the Berne Congress of September 1868, demanding economic equality and implicitly attacking authority in both Church and State."
  50. ^ The Ethics of Liberty, Murray N. Rothbard
  51. ^ The Machienry of Freedom, David D. Friedman
  52. ^ Holcombe, Randall G.. "Government: Unnecessary but Inevitable". The Independent Review 8 (3): 325–342 at pages 326–328 (armed forces); 330–331 (market failure in protective services); 332–333 (police).. http://www.independent.org/pdf/tir/tir_08_3_holcombe.pdf. 
  53. ^ The Ethics of Liberty, Murray N. Rothbard
  54. ^ For a New Liberty, Murray N. Rothbard
  55. ^ For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto, Murray N. Rothbard
  56. ^ Lewis Call (2002) Postmodern anarchism Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 66–68.
  57. ^ For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto, Murray N. Rothbard
  58. ^ The Machienry of Freedom, David D. Friedman
  59. ^ Murray Rothbard -. [http://mises.org/rothbard/mes.asp - Power and Market: Defense services on the Free Market -]. p. 1051 -. http://mises.org/rothbard/mes.asp -. "It is all the more curious, incidentally, that while laissez-faireists should by the logic of their position, be ardent believers in a single, unified world government, so that no one will live in - a state of "anarchy" in relation to anyone else, they almost never are. -" 
  60. ^ The Machienry of Freedom, David D. Friedman
  61. ^ For a New Liberty, Murray N. Rothbard
  62. ^ Linda & Morris Tannehill. The Market for Liberty, p. 81.
  63. ^ Woodcock identifies him as the leading french individualist anarchist around the time of World War I (pg. 324). George Woodcock. Anarchism: a history of libertarian ideas. pg 324
  64. ^ "...probably, the individualist who unfolds in the most detailed form stirnerist ideas and who has the capacity of having a specific domination, above all between the two world wars, in the milieu of individualist discourse." Xavier Diez. El anarquismo individualista en España (1923-1939). Virus Editorial. Barcelona. 2007
  65. ^ Janet Biehl, Short Biography of Murray Bookchin
  66. ^ Miller, David, Janet Coleman, William Connolly, Alan Ryan, ed (1987). The Blackwell encyclopaedia of political thought. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. [not given]. ISBN 0-631-17944-5.  LCC JA61 .B57 1987

Bibliography

External links